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The year 2000 was rich
in various significant events. One of these was the
approval of the "Bases of the Social Concept
of the Russian Orthodox Church" by the Jubilee
Bishops' Council. The Concept for the first time formulated
the official position of Moscow Patriarchate on a
wide range of problems related to public life and
the state.
This report in the series
"On the Verge of a New Millennium: Russia's Option"
is devoted to this document. An analysis of the level
of religiousness of the Russian society is followed
by a detailed exegesis of the social doctrine of the
Russian Orthodox Church, accompanied by statistical
commentary on some issues. The focus is on today's
most acute social problems. In a special chapter of
the report, we provide a brief description of the
history of this issue, as well as the canonical structure
of the Church and the structure of the senior church
hierarchy.
Grigory Yavlinsky
December 19, 2000
The Report prepared by:
Tatyana Yarigina (Project Head), Irina Shalganova
Translated by: Olga Radayeva,
Tim Avison, Irina Konstantinova.
Contents
The social concept of the
Russian Orthodox Church
The history of the problem
The structure of the Social Concept
The basic provisions of the Concept
The Social concept of
the Russian Orthodox Church
Winston Churchill used
to say, those who separate politics from ethics understand
neither. The development of the international community
on the threshold of the third millennium demonstrates
that the simple ethics of success of realpolitik,
where the political goal justifies the means used,
including immoral ones such as lies, betrayal, political
assassination and war, has no place in the new world
order.
In accordance with the
paradigm of the new world order the art of politics
implies a persuasive combination of political calculation
with ethical norms and a constant search for their
juncture. The basis of this connection represents
the so-called "golden rule", which may be
found in the Bible, Muslim hadiths, the writings of
Confucius, Buddhist precepts and the Indian epic poem
the Mahabharata. The Bible says, "Do unto others
as you would have them do unto you". The fundamental
principle, understood by all cultures - not to harm
other people if one does not want to get this harm
back - has in the course of history been the basis
of many international treaties, including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) the treaty on control
of the arms race, treaties on the non-proliferation
of weapons of mass destruction, and many others.
For Russia, undergoing
a very dramatic period of its history, the existence
of ethic and moral principles is the basis of survival.
The importance of the church in the establishment
of these principles cannot be overestimated.
The level of morality of
society cannot be subject to a direct quantitative
evaluation, but indirectly a rough idea of this level
may be obtained through an assessment of the religiousness
of the population. According to the polls of the Public
Opinion Fund, the number of Russian citizens calling
themselves Orthodox Christians have been growing throughout
the past decade (see Figure 1). In August 2000, their
share reached 56%, whereas about 33% of the citizens
of Russia polled remained atheists. The level of religiousness
varies considerably by sex. Thus, the number of men
calling themselves non-believers was twice as large
as the number of women (41% against 23%).
However, the level of adherence
to the church by Russian citizens, which is manifested
in the observance of the rules of the church, is considerably
lower. Only 6% of those polled visit church once a
month or more often (3% of men and 9% of women), and
only about one-third of those polled attend church
several times a year. Only 12% of the Russian citizens
receive the Eucharist one or two times a year (7%
of men and 17% of women), including the 1% of those
receiving the Eucharist on a regular basis (once or
more per month). 79% virtually never keep the fast,
and over 50% of those polled have never read neither
the Gospel or other obligatory texts.
During the sociological
survey it was discovered that 49% of respondents never
pray (64% of men and 36% of women), while the rest
pray in their own manner without observation of any
rules (see Figure 2).
The majority of the experts
polled (82%) share the opinion that the Russian Orthodox
Church plays a positive role in the social life of
modern Russia, and its authority has been recently
rising (47%) or at least remains at the same level
(37%).
The Patriarch of Moscow
and All Russia Alexei II said, "The Universal
mission of Russia will be realised through the proposal
to other nations of the Russian vision of the way
of development based on the spiritual and moral priorities
rather than on the intention to dominate and possess."
During the current anniversary year for Christianity,
the Russian Orthodox Church had a significant event.
The Jubilee Bishops' Council that assembled in Moscow
on August 13-16, 2000, approved the Bases of the Social
Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church, which for
the first time in the many centuries of the history
of Russian Orthodox Church formulated the position
of the Church on the main socio-political problems
of today.
The consequent reaction
from society (which, in our view, was incongruous
in its modest scope with the importance of the document)
was varied, even contradictory. The main criticism
of the Concept may be reduced to the following:
- a document adopted in
such a form will have no influence on the life of
the Church;
- a number of provisions considered in the document
relate exclusively to the inner affairs of the Church;
- some judgements on the issues worked out are shallow
and declarative;
- the areas of interaction with the state are enumerated
without providing definite mechanisms for such interaction;
- the screen of "good balance" conceals
a compromising and uncertain moral position on a number
of fundamental issues.
The positive reaction on
the Concept refer mainly to the same aspects, but
their evaluation is diametrically opposed:
- the document contains
a social initiative, which, moreover, is original
and quite bold towards the state;
- this is not an inner compromise within the church,
it is synthesis of positions;
- the Concept adequately reflects the present realities,
its acute problems and gives them a principled assessment;
- it is of great practical value for pastoral service.
All opponents agree only
on one issue - the Bases of the Social Concept is
an innovation not only for the Russian Orthodox Church,
but also for global orthodox religion in general.
None of the other Autocephalous Orthodox Churches
possesses such a formal document. Even the Roman Catholic
Church, with one of the most developed and detailed
social doctrines, does not have a single document
here. Catholic doctrine consists of a constantly broadening
code of papal encyclicals, each covering separate
social issues. It is constantly modified, observing
the principle of strict continuity, which does not
allow for the revision or criticism of deductions
made by previous pontiffs.
In the present report we
are pleased to offer to the readers' attention a summary
of the Bases of the Social Concept of the Russian
Orthodox Church reflecting the official approach of
the Moscow Patriarchate to relationships with the
state and with secular society, which should become
the rules for all canonical departments of the church,
as well as the clergy and the laymen. For the clergy
and their congregations, the Concept is to become
a practical guide, and for secular society it will
give a clear idea of the moral stance of the Church
on acute social problems. This document contains the
basic provisions of the doctrine, which presupposes
their further explication and a deeper elaboration
of certain issues. The document virtually constitutes
a social doctrine of the Russian Orthodox Church,
and it was thus called over the whole period of its
development. However, obviously due to the problems
inside the church, in particular the lack of a firm
opinion on a certain range of issues, in the final
variant approved by the Council the term "doctrine"
was replaced by a milder one of "concept".
The History of the
Problem
Over its thousand years
of existence, the Russian Orthodox Church has been
advancing the development of its social concept, and
it was not an easy path. Virtually throughout the
whole of its history the Church did not have such
an opportunity. Actively participating in the formation
and advancement of Russian statehood, and being de
facto and then de jure a state institution, the Church
has always had to act with one eye on the secular
authorities. The form of the relationship between
church and state was inherited from Byzantium, based
on the principle of "symphony of the Church and
the state", which ideally envisaged co-operation,
mutual support and responsibility without interference
in the sphere of the exclusive competence of the other
party. In reality, however, this principle was constantly
violated by both sides. It was the Church that, remaining
one of the metropolitan provinces of the Patriarch
of Constantinople (after Russia was baptised in 988,
up to the middle of the 15th century), initiated the
integration of the scattered Russian principalities,
acting as the basis for the gathering of a single
state in the 15th-16th centuries. Becoming an Autocephalous
Church, the Russian Orthodox Church nevertheless did
not become truly independent, as it continued to actively
interfere in the policies of the secular authorities
and shield itself from an outer interference. The
Reforms of Peter the Great put an end to this struggle:
the patriarchy was abolished and power was given to
the Holy Governing Synod (1721) headed by a representative
of the tsar (President, later called the Ober-Procurator).
Thus the Russian Orthodox Church officially was given
the status of state church. The period of the Synod's
governance lasted about 200 years, and only at the
All-Russia Church Council convened in 1917 was the
rule of Patriarch again restored.
The Bolsheviks' rise to
power and construction of a socialist state on the
ruins of the monarchy was a new ordeal for the Russian
Orthodox Church. Until 1917, the Russian Orthodox
Church was an integral part of the monarchical system
(with all of the pros and cons inherent in such a
position) and virtually was headed by the sovereign;
later however, it became a hostage of a regime based
on the principles of a militant atheism. After the
Soviet of People's Commissars adopted a Decree on
the separation of church and state, the church not
merely lost its influence in the upper echelon of
state power, but even confronted discrimination and
then open repression. Beginning 1929, religious organisations
were ultimately prohibited from engaging in social
activity, ecclesiastical life was limited to the walls
of its churches, the number of which was rapidly falling
and by the beginning of the Second World War amounted
to only several hundred over the entire territory
of the USSR. The sudden thaw in the attitude of the
Soviet state to the Russian Orthodox Church during
the war period was strictly rationed, forced and short-lived.
Stalin required it for the urgent mobilisation of
all national reserves both spiritual and material.
After the victorious conclusion of the war, the revanche
of atheistic ideology was rapid. In such a situation,
the Church tried to accommodate to the hostile surroundings,
often agreeing on serious compromises. Such policies
inevitably enhanced its dependence on the regime and
deprived it of the opportunity to openly criticise
the actions of the authorities, which completely removed
any prospect of developing its own position on acute
social problems that differed from the state.
A real opportunity for
the Russian Orthodox Church to go beyond the limits
of its church buildings and again move into public
life appeared only after its 1000 anniversary, which
turned into a nation-wide festivity on the occasion
of the thousandth anniversary of Christianity in Russia.
At present the Russian Orthodox Church includes 128
eparchies (dioceses) that comprise over 19,000 parishes
and about 480 monasteries in different regions of
Russia and beyond its borders.*) In 1989 there were
only 67 eparchies and less than 7,000 parishes (as
of 1988). Pastoral services are conducted by over
150 bishops, 17,500 priests and 2,300 deacons. The
network of orthodox educational institutions (spiritual
academies, seminaries, colleges, universities and
icon-drawing schools) has been constantly growing;
about 6,000 people study in these institutions.
----------------------
*) Data published on the official website of the Russian
Orthodox Church.
----------------------
The supreme authority in
matters of dogma, church governing and court lies
with the Landed Council (Pomestniy Sobor), which summons
bishops, as well as selected clergymen, monks and
laymen. During the Landed Councils the whole of the
legislative, executive and judicial power is vested
in the Bishops' Council, drawing together the heads
of the eparchies, Synodal institutions and spiritual
schools of the bishops order. Current authority (between
Councils) is vested by proxy in the Holy Synod, headed
by the Patriarch. His Holiness Patriarch of Moscow
and All Russia (the full title) heads the Russian
Orthodox Church. He convokes the Landed Council and
the Bishops' Councils (as necessary, but at least
once every two and five years, respectively), meetings
of the Holy Synod and presides over them. The Patriarch
and the Holy Synod are assisted in their work by different
Synodal institutions (see Figure 1).
At present the position
of the Church in its relationship with the state may
be reduced to the following: "The Church should
be separated, truely separated from the state".*)
The adoption of the Social Concept is a step forward
on this path. The need to work out the Concept was
recognised by the Bishops' Council in 1994. On its
order the Holy synod formed a working group in 1996,
comprising the bishops and clergymen of the Russian
Orthodox Church, professors of the higher spiritual
educational institutions, and staff of the Synodal
departments (26 people in total). Work on the document
was headed by Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and
Kaliningrad. The result of this work, corrected during
joint meetings of the group, consultations with experts,
discussions at the Theological Conference "Orthodox
Theology on the Cusp of the Third Millennium"
and the symposium "The Church and Society - 2000",
was considered by top Russian clergy in August 2000.
--------------------
*) His Holiness Patriarch Alexei II
--------------------
The Structure of the
Social Concept
The Social Concept represents
quite a large document and includes 16 chapters:*)
I. Basic theological provisions.
II. Church and nation.
III. Church and state.
IV. Christian ethics and secular law.
V. Church and politics.
VI. Labour and its fruits.
VII. Property.
VIII. War and peace.
IX. Crime, punishment, reformation.
X. Personal, family and public morality.
XI. Personal and national health.
XII. Problems of bioethics.
XIII. Church and ecological problems.
XIV. Secular science, culture and education.
XV. Church and mass media.
XVI. International relations; problems of globalisation
and secularism.
----------------
*) The text of the Concept was provided by the Communications
Service of the Department of External Church Relations
of the Moscow Patriarchate.
----------------
All the aforementioned
issues can be distinguished into two blocs: provisions
related to the relationship between church and state
and the position on a number of issues of public importance,
including economic problems. An enumeration of these
problems may give an idea of the scope of the document,
the text of which is amply supplied with numerous
historic references and quotations from the Holy Writ
and Sacred Legend of the Church. As we cannot delve
deeply into all the problems touched on in the Concept
in our Report, we will limit ourselves to those issues
which, in our view, seem the most acute for all citizens
of Russia, regardless of the religiosity and religion.
Special attention has been given to the social aspects
of the contemporarily life.
The Basic Provisions
of the Concept
The theological provision
of the Church's participation in secular affairs and
social servicing with a mission of the salvation of
mankind precedes an ethical assessment of the main
problems of today.
The Church, joining together
two natures, the divine and the human, is in its essence
connected with the world, and its mission is not only
in the salvation of the people populating this world,
but also the redemption of this world. Therefore,
it is inadmissible and sinful "to shun the surrounding
world in a Manichean way". "Life in the
Church" presumes "continuous ministry to
God and the people" and participation in public
life based on the Christian moral principles. The
Church tries to implement its mission not only through
direct sermon, but also through good deeds improving
the spiritual-moral, as well as the material condition
of the society. For the sake of this goal, interaction
with the state, different public structures and individuals
regardless of their adherence to the Christian religion
is allowed.
Co-ordination of the relationship
between Church and state touches upon many aspects,
including the following:
- moral sense of the existence of the institution
of the state;
- models and conditions of interaction between Church
and state;
- participation of the clergy and the laymen in the
governing of the state;
- personal freedom, from the point of view of Christian
ethics.
First of all, the existence
of the state in the contemporary world is recognised
as a necessity. Its moral sense in the world spoilt
by sin, where a person and society should be shielded
from dangerous manifestations of the sin is in the
usage of the state machinery for maintenance and protection
of justice. Calling on laymen to obey the authority
of the state, the Church nevertheless warns them against
its becoming absolute, always stressing that it is
secondary by nature. "The Church has been founded
by God himself, our Lord Jesus Christ, while the god-instituted
nature of state authority is revealed in historical
process only indirectly. The goal of the Church is
the eternal salvation of people, while the goal of
the state is their well-being on earth."(Bases...,
III.3).
Nevertheless, fruitful
co-operation of the Church and a secular state is
possible. First of all, the absence of any religious
commitments of the state (its secular nature) does
not mean the obligatory removal of religion from all
spheres of public life; this presumes only a division
of the fields of competence and non-interference into
each other's affairs. However, Bases... gives an impression
that the degree of non-interference envisaged by the
document is different for the different sides of the
dialogue. Closing its inner life from our interference,
the Church retains for itself the right to indirectly
influence the activity of the state in virtually all
areas.
Thus, "the state should
not interfere in the life of the Church or her government,
doctrine, liturgical life, counselling, etc., or the
work of canonical church institutions in general,
except for those aspects where the Church is supposed
to operate as a legal identity [sic: read "entity"]
obliged to enter into certain relations with the state,
its legislation and governmental agencies. The Church
expects that the state will respect her canonical
norms and other internal statutes." (Bases...,
III.3). The Russian Orthodox Church in turn undertakes
up not to resist sin by force, or use secular authoritative
powers, or take on the functions of state authority
which presuppose coercion.
During the many centuries
of its history the Christianity has accumulated rich
experience in the area of its relationship with the
state, which took different forms, such as:
- "Symphonic relationships"
between the Church and the state, which are considered
ideal by the Orthodox tradition and presume that the
state seeks spiritual support from the Church, and
the Church in its turn also may count on state assistance
in the creation of conditions for implementation of
its mission of salvation.
- Combination of the church and state authority in
the hands of the top church hierarch (the "two
swords" doctrine).
- Relations built on the territorial principle, the
essence of which is the absolute sovereignty of the
state, covering religion too. When this principle
is strictly observed, the state is by force turned
into a mono-confessional state. A weaker variant of
this model admits the functioning of other churches,
provided there is a sole national church.
- A radical division of the Church from the state,
envisaging an absolutely neutral attitude of the state
to all the confessions.
- The Church as a public corporation. In this case
it is delegated a number of the obligations and privileges
of the state while preserving its independent governance.
The specifics of the modern
stage of historic development is that the real situation
of Christian communities, both those preserving a
national church (Great Britain, Denmark, Greece) and
those completely separated from the state (the USA,
France), or those occupying an intermediate position
(Germany) has become increasingly less dependent on
their formal status.
With all its readiness
to co-operate with the state authorities, the Church
is ready to delve into it only to a certain extent.
"The Church remains loyal to the state, but God's
commandment to fulfil the task of salvation in any
situation and under any circumstances is above this
loyalty. If the authority forces Orthodox believers
to apostatise from Christ and His Church and to commit
sinful and spiritually harmful actions, the Church
should refuse to obey the state." (Bases...,
III.5). The tough position of the Church on this issue
is partially mitigated by a rich choice of further
actions. Thus, in a conflict situation a clergymen
may act as follows:
- enter into dialogue with
the authorities;
- use the mechanisms of popular power;
- appeal to international institutions;
or
- call the congregation to peaceful civil disobedience.
An Orthodox Christian may
be called to peaceful civil disobedience only after
other means have proved impossible or ineffective,
in particular, open but legal actions against the
violation by society or the state of God's commandments.
The priorities in the field
of co-operation (co-work) of the Church and the state
may vary depending on the historic moment. At present
the list of such priorities is quite large, including:
"- peacemaking on
international, inter-ethnic and civic levels and promoting
mutual understanding and co-operation among peoples,
nations and states;
- concern for the preservation of morality in society;
- spiritual, cultural, moral and patriotic education
and formation;
- charity and the development of joint social programmes;
- preservation, restoration and development of the
historical and cultural heritage, including concern
for the preservation of historical and cultural monuments;
- dialogue with governmental bodies of all branches
and levels on issues important for the Church and
society, including the development of appropriate
laws, by-laws, instructions and decisions;
- care of the military and law-enforcement workers
and their spiritual and moral education;
- efforts to prevent crime and [promote] care of prisoners;
- science and research;
- healthcare;
- culture and arts;
- work of ecclesiastical and secular mass media;
- preservation of the environment;
- economic activity for the benefit of the Church,
state and society;
- support for the institution of family, for motherhood
and childhood;
- opposition to the work of pseudo-religious structures
presenting a threat to the individual and society."
(Bases..., III.8).
In addition the Church
considers intercession with the authorities for the
rights and needs of the people, social groups and
individuals its obligation.
It is much easier to enumerate
the fields where the state cannot count on the aid
and support of the Russian Orthodox Church. These
include: political struggle, military aggression or
civil war, and espionage.
Clergymen are prohibited
from participating in the activity of political organisations,
electoral campaigns, and standing for election to
political bodies of all levels. However, this does
not hinder their participation in voting as equal
members of the society. The Russian Orthodox Church
allows for the existence of different political beliefs
among bishops, clergymen and laymen, if they conform
with Christian moral standards and do not contradict
Orthodox doctrine. The position of the Church on issues
of public importance is "expressed only by Councils,
the church authorities and those empowered to act
for them."
This prohibition does not
extend to the Orthodox laity. Moreover, their participation
in the political life of the country is regarded as
one of the forms of the mission of the Church in society,
though it is not identified with the stance of the
Church and does not receive a special blessing. This
is justified by the fact that many political decisions
are inevitably connected with sin or with complicity
with sin. "The Christian who works in the sphere
of public and political building is called to seek
the gift of special self-sacrifice and special self-denial.
He needs to be utterly attentive to his own spiritual
condition, so that his public or political work may
not turn from service into an end in itself that nourishes
pride, greed and other vices." (Bases..., V.3).
From the point of view
of the Orthodox faith, war represents evil; however,
the Church distinguishes between aggressive and defensive
military actions here. In the latter case, when speaking
about the "security of their neighbours and the
restoration of trampled justice", war is recognised
to be a forced, though undesirable means of solving
a conflict. Recognising that at present the borderline
between different types of military actions often
can be difficult to draw, the Russian Orthodox Church
solves the problem of its attitude to such war in
each situation separately. Special attention is paid
to the methods of conducting war, as when "struggling
with the sin it is important to avoid sharing in it."
A fighting man should not lose his morals and should
constantly remember the value of human life. The Christian
attitude to the problems of war and peace lies at
the foundation of the peacemaking practices of the
Church and its special concern with the military.
The Orthodox religion allows
for contacts with secular authorities of different
branches of power and different levels; however, this
interaction is strictly regulated. First of all, relations
with the judicial branch are limited exclusively to
the field of interest of the Church, which is represented
by authorised laymen. Internal disputes of the Church
may not taken to secular courts. Any applications
of the clergymen to the state authorities are allowed
only with the permission of the senior church authorities.
The sacred canons prohibit the clergy from participating
in the government of the state, not only at the level
of legislative (representative) bodies, but also at
the level of executive structures.
The Concept also contains
an ambivalent attitude to the principle of freedom
of conscience. From the Christian point of view, this
represents an obvious loss by the society of religious
values, as religion has been turning into a "private
matter" for the individual. At the same time,
this is this very principle that allows the Church
to legally implement her mission in the secular state.
Since 1994, the Russian
Orthodox Church has consistently adhered to a stance
of withholding a preference for any state system or
political doctrine. None of the known models of the
state (except may be for the reign of the Judges in
the Old Testament) can be considered perfect due to
theological reasons. On the other hand, "the
change of the form of government to that more religiously
rooted, introduced without spiritualising society
itself, will inevitably degenerate into falsehood
and hypocrisy and make this form weak and valueless
in the eyes of the people." (Bases..., III.7).
Like the secular state,
the secular law is secondary. Any legal system created
by human society bears the mark of limitation and
imperfection, though it contains some minimum of moral
norms mandatory for all the members of the society.
"The secular law has as its task not to turn
the world lying in evil into the Kingdom of God, but
to prevent it from turning into hell".(Bases...,
IV,2). Human law cannot represent the fullness of
God's law, but it should at least correspond to Christian
principles and not destroy them. Thus, for a Christian
sense of justice, inalienable human rights proceed
from the Bible's doctrine and are inseparably connected
with the idea of service. The system of modern secular
law interprets man as a self-sufficient subject, and
the protection of the freedom of a person is transformed
into the protection of self-will.
A special system of law
- Canon law - is in effect in the Church. It is based
on Divine Revelation and cannot be regarded as a part
of the civil law. "The Christian law is fundamentally
supra-social".(Bases..., IV, 5). It is this independence
that allows the Church to exist within the framework
of different legal systems.
The attitude of the Church
to ethnic problems stipulated by the Concept is based
on its universal nature, neglecting the division of
people as being of nations or classes. All believers
represent a single people of God. Nevertheless, every
nation has a right to its national identity, which
is guaranteed by the canonical structure of the Orthodox
Church, which being a sole (universal) church, nevertheless
includes a multitude of Autocephalous National Churches
(the Russian Orthodox Church being one of these).
"Orthodox Christians, aware of being citizens
of the heavenly homeland, should not forget about
their earthly homeland" (Bases..., II, 2), which
has not only a territorial but also an ethnic dimension.
Christian patriotism should be effective and manifest
itself both in the protection of the Fatherland and
in labouring for its well-being.
The authors of the Concept
also did not neglect the danger of exaggerating national
feelings. Aggressive nationalism, xenophobia, national
exclusivity and inter-ethnic enmity are recognised
as sins. "It is contrary to Orthodox ethics to
divide nations into the best and the worst and to
belittle any ethnic or civic nation. Even more contrary
to Orthodoxy are the teachings which put the nation
in the place of God or reduce faith to one of the
aspects of national self-awareness." (Bases...,
II,4). A separate nation may be regarded as Orthodox
only if it represents fully or predominantly a mono-confessional
Orthodox community.
Among the economic problems
the Concept covers more deeply is the Christian attitude
to labour and property. "Labour in itself is
not an absolute value. It is blessed when it represents
co-working with the Lord and contribution to the realisation
of His design for the world and man." (Bases...,
VI,4). The intention to independently cater for one's
needs without laying this burden onto anyone and the
wish to help the needy are considered to be moral
labour incentives. Labour from egoistic motives is
censured. Church tradition also stipulates not only
the necessity of everyday labour, but also its special
rhythm, fully devoting one day a week for prayer.
From apostolic times, Sunday, the day of Resurrection
of the Christ, is considered the Christian Sabbath
rather than Saturday (according to the Bible).
At present about 50% of
Russia's population work or are looking for work (44.9%
and 5% respectively). The unemployment level, which
has been declining for the past 18 months, amounted
in October 2000 to 10% of the economically active
population. The leaders among the economically inactive
population are students and pensioners, about 3% of
the population from 15 to 72 years of age are employed
in housekeeping, but there are some who have already
lost any hope of finding a job (over one million people).
------
*) Here and below, official data of the State Statistical
Committee are used.
------
The Church considers all
types of human activity that agree with Christian
norms to be equally necessary and valuable. Nevertheless
the present economic system has whole sectors successfully
functioning for the satisfaction of harmful passions
and habits, and closed for Orthodox believers, for
example, gambling and some types of professional sports.
For the same reason the Church censures all semi-legal
and legally prohibited manifestations of the "social
diseases" of today, as corrupting not only to
the individual, but the whole of society.
There should be remuneration
for any labour; whereas such remuneration should be
timely and just, the opposite case is considered by
the Church as not only a crime against a human, but
is also a sin before God. The Christian understanding
of just division of the fruits of labour also includes
their mandatory redistribution in favour of the "voiceless
and forceless", which may be interpreted as a
recognition of the obligation to pay taxes. "The
spiritual welfare and survival of society are possible
only if the effort to ensure life, health and minimal
welfare for all citizens becomes an indisputable priority
in distributing the material resources". (Bases...,
VI,6).
The nominal incomes of
the population have been steadily growing; however,
their real levels remain extremely low. In the 3rd
quarter of 2000, the average wage and per capita income
were only 73.1% and 74.4% higher than the subsistence
minimum of the corresponding groups of the population.
The average pension, together with other compensation,
covered only 78.5% of a pensioner's subsistence minimum,
in a situation where in the last ten months of 2000
its nominal value rose by 44%.
Indebtedness (including
that of the state) in payments to the population remains
high. As of the beginning of November 2000, wage arrears
exceeded 38 billion roubles.
The Church does not determine
property rights of people, but it has its own opinion
on this issue. The property of a human cannot alone
show his morality and whether God is pleased with
him. This is important so that the desire to provide
a dignified well-being for oneself and one's relatives
does not turn into an extreme aspiration for wealth,
as it does not constitute human happiness and destiny.
Property right is relative, whereas the absolute right
belongs only to God, who grants people their well-being.
Property is the gift of the God, and therefore wealth
as such cannot be censured. The danger to salvation
here comes from its unjust usage or fetishisation,
as well as from the infringement of other people's
property, its redistribution in violation of the rights
of its rightful owners.
According to the official
data, the monetary incomes of the 10% most well-off
and the 10% least well-off citizens currently differ
by more than a factor of 14. In the third quarter
of 2000, 32% of the population were living below the
poverty line (cf. 41% in the first quarter of 2000).
Acknowledging the diversity
of forms of ownership, the Russian Orthodox Church
does not gives preference to any of them. "Any
of its forms can produce sinful phenomena, such as
theft, money grubbing, unfair distribution of wealth,
and the proper and morally justified use of wealth."
(Bases..., VII,3).
Of the 3.1 million enterprises
registered in Russia as of January 1, 2000, 11.2%
were state or municipal, 74.4% were privately owned,
and 7% were owned by public organisations. The rest
were either of mixed ownership (both with and without
foreign capital), or were fully owned by foreign legal
entities. About three-fourths of private organisations
were founded by private individuals. At the same time,
over one-third of registered enterprises actually
collapsed without registering their liquidation.
According to the Russian
Orthodox Church, only the property of religious organisations,
based mostly on free donations from believers, constitute
a special form of ownership. "Being consecrated
to God, donation is immune … As donation is a special
case of economic and social relations, it should not
be made automatically subject to the laws regulating
finances and economy of the state, in particular,
public taxation." (Bases..., VII.4.)
Questions of personal,
family and public morals feature prominently among
the multitude of questions covered in the Concept,
in particular:
· the health of individuals and the people;
· bioethics;
· crime;
· the situation in science, culture and education;
· environmental problems; and
· the attitude to secular mass media.
The Orthodox Church has
always paid much attention to questions of marriage,
family and the education of children. In Christian
understanding, marriage is not just a legal agreement
between two free persons, but "the eternal union
of spouses in Christ." This explains the basic
differences between church and secular marriages.
In particular, different religions professed by prospective
spouses constitute a key though not an insurmountable
barrier to marriage. The church will either refuse
to wed such a couple (although it recognises secular
marriages to non-Christians), or bless it (meaning
marriages to Christians of other confessions) on the
condition that the children of such couple shall be
brought up to be Orthodox believers. Another specific
feature of Orthodox marriage is that it cannot be
annulled. The Orthodox church denounces divorces as
a sin and permits them only in exceptional, strictly
regulated cases. The church does not encourage second
marriages, but does not prohibit them under certain
conditions.
While demanding that marriages
should be blessed in church, the Russian Orthodox
Church still recognise marriages registered in accordance
with secular legislation. Extra-marital sex and its
popularisation are denounced as a sin against chastity
that leads to negative social consequences.
According to official statistics,
the number of registered marriages continues to shrink.
In 1989, there were 8.9 marriages per 1,000 persons,
while the figure for 1999 was only 6.3. The number
of divorces is still very high, although considerably
lower than in the mid-1990s: 3.7 divorces per 1,000
persons in 1999, as compared to 4.6 in 1994 and 3.8
in 1990. At the same time, indirect evidence shows
that the number of unregistered (so-called civil)
marriages, as well as the number of children born
out of wedlock are growing (14.6% of all newborns
in 1990 and 27.9% in 1999).
The Christian tradition
sees the family as a domestic church. But the modern
way of life is eroding traditional contacts between
generations. The professional ambitions of parents
frequently push the social importance of bringing
up children to second place. "The role of family
in the formation of the individual is exceptional;
no other social institution can replace it. The erosion
of family relations inevitably entails the deformation
of the normal development of children and leaves a
long, and to a certain extent indelible trace in them
for life. (Bases..., X.4.) The church regards abandoned
children of living parents as an outstanding problem
for modern society.
In addition to orphans
who live in orphanages, there are roughly 6,500 children
(or about one-third of children living in orphanages)
who had been abandoned by their parents (1998). In
all, 620,000 orphans were registered in Russia as
of 1998. Most of them (73%) are being brought up in
families,, while the rest still live in social child-care
institutions.
The Orthodox attitude to
the discrimination of women differs considerably from
the secular view. The church believes that women are
discriminated when the natural differences between
the sexes are neglected, when women are encouraged
to emulate men and to compete with them. The equal
importance of sexes does not imply their equality
in the family and society. "While appreciating
the social role of women and welcoming their political,
cultural and social equality with men, the Church
opposes the tendency to diminish the role of woman
as wife and mother. " (Bases..., X.5.) The Orthodox
Church does not limit its view to the system of the
distribution of social functions between men and women.
Orthodoxy places women higher than secular society
does. The differences in the sex of believers, just
as social or ethnic differences, cannot influence
the salvation of the soul.
The church does not regard
the problem of health of the individual and the whole
people as extraneous, because this problem is directly
linked with its mission in this world. However, Orthodox
thinking makes an inseparable link between physical
and spiritual health. Health professionals should
remember this, because they should know the basic
elements of the orthodox approach to bio-medical ethics.
The practical application of the mission of the church
in medicine can be seen in the construction of hospital
churches and church and monastery hospitals, the provision
of all types of charity and spiritual assistance to
patients, including with the help of believers and
nuns and monks, who are assigned duties in clinics
and other medical establishments. "Without giving
preference to any organisational model of medical
aid, the Church believes that this aid should be maximum
effective [sic] and accessible to all members of society,
regardless of their financial means and social status."
(Bases..., XI.3.)
At the same time, the Church
interprets the Christian essence of suffering, warns
against unconditional acceptance of medical theories
and against the introduction of occult and magical
practices under the guise of "alternative medicine."
The Church has a special
attitude to psychiatric patients and some sociogenic
deseases. It distinguishes three levels of organisation
of the individual - spiritual, mental and physical,
and admits the existence of different reasons for
mental illness. It believes that "it is equally
unjustifiable to reduce all mental diseases to manifestations
of obsession - the conception ensuing in the unjustifiable
exorcism of evil spirits, and to treat any mental
disorder exclusively by medical means." (Bases...,
XI.5.) A combination of spiritual and medical assistance
is regarded as the most fruitful. Mental disorder
does not diminish the individual's dignity and the
choice of the form of treatment should be based on
the principle of minimal infringement on the patient's
freedom.
However, the Church denounces
the specific mental disorders of alcoholism and drug
addiction as sins. It regards them as a sign of the
spiritual ailments of modern society and as payment
for yielding to the demons of consumerism. On the
other hand, the Church calls for treating the victims
of these diseases with compassion.
The incidence of diseases
tend to grow, and this is true for virtually all types
of disease. The figures were 1,724.7 per 1,000 children,
1,462.8 per 1,000 teenagers and 1,141.5 per 1,000
adults in 1999. As many as 2,400 per 100,000 people
suffered from various types of mental disorders in
1999, including 29% serious disorders, 26% mid-level,
and the rest borderline.
According to official statistics,
the number of alcoholics decreased from 1,800 per
100,000 in 1990 to 1,500 in 1999 (of these, 15.2%
are women). However, this disease is poisoning more
and more children under 15. The number of children
registered for drinking grew by 34.6% in 1999 alone.
The number of drug addicts
registered at drug-treatment clinics has grown by
750% in the past ten years , to 143.7 per 100,000.
But experts say that only 10% of addicts seek official
medical assistance.*
--------------------------------------------
* State report On Public
Health in the Russian Federation in 1999
-------------------------------------------
The Russian Orthodox Church
is seriously worried by the growing demographic crisis,
which is distorting the structure of society, reducing
the creative potential of the people, and weakening
the family. The Church blames depopulation and the
critical health situation in Russia on wars, the revolution,
famines, mass persecution campaigns and the deep social
crisis.
The population of Russia
has dwindled by 3.5 million in the past ten years.
The natural decrease in the population has been growing,
while migration growth rates have been falling for
several years now. In January-September 2000, positive
migration made up for only 23% of natural losses of
the population, as the death rate was nearly twice
as high as the birth rate (1,662,000 and 948,000,
respectively). The life expectancy of those who were
born in 1999 went down to 65.9 years (59.8 for men
and 72.2 for women).
The progress of medicine
more and more often encounters moral problems. Some
of these problems have long worried the Orthodox clergy,
while others have only recently been engendered by
the mindless use of novel biomedical technologies.
The authors of the Concept united the following issues
in a group titled "Bioethics":
· regulation of the reproductive
sphere (abortions, contraceptives, ways of combating
infertility and sterility);
· genetic interference, cloning of human beings;
· transplant problems;
· the verification of the moment of death;
· attitude to sexual minorities.
The Church regards abortion
as a threat to the future of humanity and a sign of
the moral degradation of the individual. According
to the canons, this is a mortal sin equal to murder,
and responsibility for it must be borne by the mother,
the father who gave his consent, and the doctor who
performed the operation. The Church is more tolerant
of abortions only in cases where the life of the mother
is endangered, especially if there are other children
in the family. An abortion performed by a woman without
the consent of her husband can be regarded as sufficient
reason for annulling a church marriage. The state
must give the doctors the right to refuse to perform
abortions for religious reasons. The Church accepts
other methods forms of birth control, provided refusal
to have children is not based on egotistical considerations.
At the same time, there
are quite a few methods of combating infertility that
the Church does not consider to be morally justifiable.
For example, it rejects the concept of surrogate mothers,
anonymous donors, all kinds of test-tube babies, and
the very ideology of reproductive rights.
Officially, the number
of abortions is diminishing every year, from 100.3
abortions per 1,000 women of child-bearing age in
1991 to 53.0 in 1999. At the same time, the number
of deaths during pregnancy and delivery is falling,
but remains 2.5 times higher than the European average
(44.2 per 100,000 live births); one-third of this
figure is related to deaths as the result of abortions.
The infant mortality rate
stopped falling in the past few years, and 16.5 per
1,000 infants died before they reached one year of
age in 1998 and 1999.
On the other hand, 15%
of couples suffer from infertility.
While admitting the achievements
of modern medicine in treating many hereditary diseases,
the Church reminds us that in some cases such diseases
can have moral roots. The practice of genetic interference,
let alone the genetic registration of the population,
could lead to all kinds of possible negative consequences,
including discrimination. The Church is divided over
the issue of pre-natal diagnostics, because it can
be unjustifiably dangerous to the life of the child,
especially when the goal is the determination of the
sex of the future child. But the main concern is that
negative results frequently lead to abortions rather
than proper treatment of genetic diseases at the early
stages of pregnancy.
Successes in cloning human
beings might prove highly dangerous for humankind,
but the cloning of cells and tissues is not regarded
by the Church as infringement on the dignity of the
individual and can be useful in medical practice.
It could remove many negative consequences of the
development of transplant surgery. From the Orthodox
viewpoint, the transplantation of human organs is
admissible only on the condition of voluntary agreement
of a donor, who does not benefit from the procedure
financially. The Church regards the so-called presumption
of agreement (to the use of the organs of the potential
donor after his or her death) as a direct violation
of human freedoms. It totally rejects foetal therapy
and transplantation that affects the uniqueness of
patients as individuals.
The improvement of resuscitation
methods has given rise to the problem of verifying
the moment of death. In the past, the criterion was
the irreversible termination of respiration and blood
circulation, but today these functions of the organism
can be maintained indefinitely, irrespective of the
functioning of other organs, which deprives human
beings of their right to an "honourable and peaceful"
death. "When intensive care becomes impossible,
its place should be taken by palliative aid (anaesthetisation,
nursing and social and psychological support) and
pastoral care. (Bases..., XII.8.) On the other hand,
the Russian Orthodox Church is resolutely against
the legalisation of euthanasia, which it regards as
murder or suicide.
Consequently, the basic
criterion in the attitude of the Church to modern
medical technological and the consequences of their
use is non-interference in "God's plan for man"
and the inadmissibility of attempts to artificially
improve the human race.
The Orthodox interpretation
of sin is much broader than the secular understanding
of crime. The Orthodox Church regards "the darkening
of the human soul" as the main reason for the
growth of crime in Russia, but admits that economic
and social problems, as well as the weakness of state
authorities, have a negative effect on this process.
Crimes that are camouflaged by political and pseudo-religious
motives are especially dangerous. The Church believes
that its task in this sphere is preventive work designed
to create a positive moral ideal in society, as well
as to provide religious guidance to convicts and the
staff of law-enforcement agencies.
According to official statistics,
crime stabilised in 2000, yet remains very high. Some
2.5-3 million crimes are registered annually in Russia
(1,688 crimes per 100,000 people in January-October
2000). At the same time, the number of certain types
of crime, above all economic and drug-related crime,
is growing.
In January-October of this
year, 1.5 millions criminals were reported, 16.5%
of them committed by women and 10.2% by minors. The
number of solved crimes amounted to 76.5% of all registered
crimes.
The Church denounces torture
and various forms of humiliation, and demands that
suspects and convicts be treated humanely. It is with
the assistance of the Church that society now has
a negative attitude to capital punishment, because
mistakes made during trial cannot be mended in this
case and moreover capital punishment has no educational
significance for the convicted person. The Church
would welcome the decision to abolish capital punishment.
The Concept pays special
attention to the sanctity of the secrecy of confession,
the violation of which is not permissible, even in
cases where this could help in law enforcement. "While
keeping sacred the secrecy of confession without any
exceptions and in any circumstances, the pastor is
obliged to make all possible efforts to prevent a
criminal intent from being realised... Remembering
that the souls of a potential criminal and his intended
victim have equal value, the priest should call the
penitent to make authentic repentance, that is, to
abandon his evil intent. If this call is not effective,
the pastor, keeping secret the penitent's name and
other circumstances which can help identify him, may
give a warning to those whose life is threatened.
(Bases..., IX.2)
The Orthodox Church has
a negative attitude to the concept of domination of
human beings over nature and an openly consumerist
treatment of it. The Church regards the latter as
the main reason for the environmental crisis, which
threatens to develop into a global environmental catastrophe.
"From the Christian point of view, nature is
not a repository of resources intended for egoistic
and irresponsible consumption, but a house in which
man is not the master, but the housekeeper, and a
temple in which he is the priest serving not nature,
but the one Creator." (Bases..., XIII.4)
While taking an active
part in various social projects, the Church stresses
that environmental problems are anthropogenic, and
hence the search for their solution cannot be limited
to the economy, biology, technology or politics. The
environmental crisis simply cannot be fully overcome
without a spiritual revival of society.
In Christian interpretation,
modern research and technological progress is based
on a false precept that rejects the need for limits
by any moral, philosophical or religious requirements,
which has engendered quite a few negative consequences
(one of these being the environmental crisis). Although
scientific and religious methods of knowledge have
different reasons, goals and methods, there is no
insurmountable contradiction between them. Religion
is not interested in the structure of matter, while
natural sciences do not link their theories with a
specific world outlook. Philosophy is the only science
that is concerned with a world outlook. On the other
hand, "it is only the combination of spiritual
experience and scientific knowledge that ensures the
fullness of cognisance." (Bases..., XIV.1) The
Russian Orthodox Church sees a special danger in the
fact that research, above all social research, is
influenced by ideology.
Orthodoxy admits the heavenly
origins of culture, which can bear the signs of God's
will even in a secular state. Cultural traditions
help to preserve the spiritual heritage, and this
concerns all types of creative work. However, the
Church retains not just the right to provide a moral
assessment of cultural phenomena, but regards this
as its duty. "If a creative work contributes
to the moral and spiritual transformation of the [individual],
the Church gives her blessing upon it. But if culture
puts itself in opposition to God, becoming anti-religious
and anti-humane and turning into anti-culture, the
Church opposes it. (Bases..., XIV.2)
Orthodox clergy understands
that the Russian Orthodox Church cannot control the
system of secular education in a poly-confessional
state which has experienced a period of total atheism
in its recent past. It sees its task in this sphere
in co-operating with all secular schools and resisting
the deliberate de-Christianisation of pedagogy and
the enforcement of anti-religious dogmas and a purely
materialistic world outlook on young people. The maintenance
of atheistic control over the system of state education
and the spread of occult, neo-pagan influence of different
sects are equally dangerous for the future of the
nation. The Church advocates the introduction of lessons
of Christian tuition at general and higher schools.
In addition, children from religious families should
have the legally established right and the practical
opportunity to receive, at their choice, a religious
upbringing and education.
The mass media have incredible
influence in modern society, but this influence should
be inseparably linked with responsibility. Although
the Church believes that the media facilitated the
onslaught of pseudo-culture, it cannot take an isolationist
position in this sphere. The Church has its own information
resources but it should not neglect permanent (special
supplements, columns, consultative assistance) and
occasional (participation in discussions, interviews,
the provision of reference materials and the like)
collaboration with the secular mass media. However,
such collaboration should be cautious and substantiated;
the position of the Church and the personal opinions
of its members should be clearly differentiated. Situations
of conflict, should they occur, must be settled in
the spirit of peaceful dialogue. In serious cases
(sacrilege or deliberate slander), the Church retains
the right to take resolute measures, up to and including
calls for boycotting the given medium and to anathematise
the guilty persons if they are Christians.
The last chapter of the
Concept is concerned with the Orthodox view of international
relations and the Church stand on globalisation and
secularism. The Christian ideal of international cooperation
is based on the aforementioned Golden Rule. Any international
agreements should be based on the principle of sovereignty
and the state integrity of parties to it. Any conflicts
should be settled through negotiations; the use of
military force is permissible only as the last resort,
for protection against armed aggression. The Russian
Orthodox Church pursues a policy of impartiality while
trying to contribute to the restoration of peace in
ethnic conflicts.
One specific feature of
the modern world order is the existence of different
unifying trends. The Church welcomes these processes,
especially if they have historical and cultural roots
and are not aimed against a third party. On the other
hand, it is seriously concerned by the appearance
of international organisations with certain state
powers. Unless all members have equal access to decision
making, such international unions might deteriorate
into a means of domination by better developed and
more influential states and tolerate a policy of double
standards. Modern globalisation has legal, political,
economic and cultural-information aspects. While becoming
poly-cultural, societies risk losing their ethnic
roots and their unique world outlook, instead getting
"a universal culture devoid of any spirituality
and based on the freedom of the fallen man, unrestricted
in anything as the absolute value and measure-stick
of the truth. The globalisation developing in this
way is compared by many in Christendom to the construction
of the Tower of Babel." (Bases..., XVI.3) The
inevitability and natural progress of globalisation
do not exclude internal contradictions and the danger
of spiritual and cultural expansion and total standardisation.
Another characteristic
feature of the modern world is the secularisation
of the state and society. Secular interests prevail
over religious interests in the legislation of most
countries, and hence in their international legal
activities. "While respecting the worldview of
non-religious people," the Church cannot regard
this situation positively. "She strives for the
recognition of the legality of the religious worldview
as a basis for socially significant action including
those taken by state)." (Bases..., XVI.4)
This is the current Orthodox
view of the basic problems of the modern world. The
Concept stresses that this position will be amended
and enriched concurrently with changes in the world
and the appearance of realities that the Church deems
important. But improvement is possible only on the
basis of mutual understanding, attained through dialogue.
Dialogue with those to whom this document is addressed
can turn it from a simple sheaf of paper into a moral
framework that will determine the system of relations
in our society.
What did other countries
do in this situation? Were such serious documents
discussed in the countries where religion greatly
influences not just relations between people, but
also political economic and social contacts? We will
write about this in one of our subsequent reports.
Figure 1
Religions of the Russian
Citizens (as a % of the polled)
no answer
atheists
other religions
orthodox
Figure 2
How the Russian Citizens
Pray (as a % of those polled who pray)
with their own prayers
with church prayers
both
read the morning and the evening prayers
women
men
Diagram 1
Structure of the Superior
Church Authorities
1. clergymen
2. laymen
3. monks
4. elected to the Council
5. Landed Council
6. Bishops' Council
7. Eparchial bishops
8. Heads of spiritual schools
9. Patriarch
10. Six permanent members
11. Six provisional members
12. Holy Synod
13. Heads of Synodal institutions
14. Synodal institutions
- Department of External Church Relations
- Department of Church Charity and Social Service
- Missionary Department
- Department for Relations with the Armed Forces and
Law-Enforcement Agencies
- Publishing Department
- Educational Committee
- Theological Commission
- Commission for Canonisation of Saints
- Commission on the Affairs of Monasteries
- Division for Economic Affairs of the Moscow Patriarchy
- Commission on Economic and Humanitarian Issues
- Department for Religious Education and Catechisation
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